Citation refers to a method undertaken by writers to inform readers that a specific portion of the written material has been borrowed from another source. It provides information to the readers about -
the name and other details about the author;
title of the work;
details about the company that published the written content;
date when the content was published.
There are different styles for writing professional essays and papers, such as the Modern Language Association style, Chicago Referencing Style, and the American Psychological Association which incorporate their own citation patterns.
Electronic sources have their own specific citation rules that users are required to follow while using such sources.
Therefore, it is necessary to learn the rules of citation to avoid plagiarism while writing papers.
Difference between primary and secondary sources of citation
Reference sources help the readers to believe that the information they are reading is either the writer’s own work or the research of some other authors.
Improper citation of sources in college and university research essays lead to plagiarized content and this calls for severe penalties. To make the citation process easier sources have been categorized into primary and secondary.
Primary source citation
These are the original documents written by people with experience and professional expertise. These include journals, diaries, letters, poems, treaties, etc.
Citing such sources can be a difficult task, especially the ones that have been digitized on a website. Obviously, any content from the 17th century that is available online is not the original source. So, how do you cite the same?
Provide as much information as possible in your source reference. Such as name of the original author, title of the document, document date, title of the website where the information was found, editor or producer of the site, date accessed, URL, etc.
For example: John Milton, “Paradis Lost,” 1682. Internet Epic Poems, John Leonard, ed., accessed 12 March 2010.
Secondary source citation
Secondary sources refer to the primary sources and are written by writers conducting research or seeking information. These include television documentaries, biographies, conferences, etc.
It is always recommended to use secondary sources sparingly. Try to identify the original source of information that is cited in the source which you are referring to.
However, this is not always possible as the original work might be out of print or unavailable through the secondary source or sometimes not in the language you are writing your essay or article.
If you read any content that provides the information you want to cite, refer to the source you are referring and not the original source.
For example: If you read a text by Martin Luther, in which he cites a study by Clive and Doyle and you want this information cited in your text refer the source as follows –
Clive and Doyle’s study (as cited in Martin, 2005) found that ...
At the end of your article in the reference list mention the name of Martin as that is the source of your information.
For example: Martin R.N. (2005). Journal of Paranormal Psychology, 29, 15-22.
Citation Formats
When writing your research paper at college or university level, you must maintain the proper format for citing your sources. Otherwise, it can result in plagiarism.
Keep in mind that when you are using a source in your content you need to acknowledge it both in the text with a proper citation and at the end of the paper in the form of a reference.
There are some common citation formats that can help you to cite your sources properly. This includes –
In-text Citation:
This implies citing within the text itself. The format of the citation will vary depending on the specific discipline or the style guide followed.
A reference list created on the basis of the cited text is listed at the end of the document as “List of Citations” or “References” either numerically or alphabetically.
For example: The Siberian tiger was once a great predator throughout Siberia (Boyle, 1980).
These are placed at the bottom of the page citing comments or references above it.
When a reader comes across a footnote, he can either straightaway read your comments at the bottom of the page or continue reading the text before referring to the footnote.
Endnotes:
These are similar to footnotes, except that the same is found at the end of the document referring to the text included in the write-up.
It uses numerals surrounded by brackets. The reference section provides a list of these numeric citations at the end of the paper.
What are end-of-paper citations?
End-of-paper citations provide full details about the information source. Citations provide different pieces of information depending on the type of source used.
For academic research essays and papers writing, the sources will mostly include articles from scholarly journals, and the details will include –
It is a general misconception that citing sources within a text makes it less original. It gives the writer a feeling that the content has been borrowed from another author. But it is not actually so.
Citing a source actually helps the reader in distinguishing the ideas of the writer and the opinions borrowed from other authors.
This will help emphasize the originality of the work of the writer, and his opinions can be highlighted in the content.
Common Citation Styles
The citation style chosen will largely be influenced by the discipline in which you are writing. In most of the cases, the writing style will be assigned to you by the instructor.
However, with the progress in your academic career, you will get more freedom of selecting your own style of writing.
The three most common citation styles are –
i) American Psychological Association (APA): This style is suitable for disciplines like social sciences, engineering, psychology, education, etc.
It uses parenthetical in-text citations with a reference list at the end of the paper for linking sources.
It puts more emphasis on the date of publication or creation for the effective tracking of relevancy and currency.
You can get more information on this style from the APA style page.
ii) Modern Language Association (MLA): This style is frequently employed in humanities, literature, and arts. It uses parenthetical in-text citation with a “Works Cited” list at the paper end for linking sources.
The name of the author is the first information following which the title and publication information are provided on the “Works Cited” list. It puts more emphasis on interpreting primary sources in historical context.
For more information on the MLA style refer to the MLA style page.
iii) Chicago: This style is mostly used for the disciplines of humanities and history. The notes utilize endnotes and footnotes to link the sources with the text.
This is typically accompanied by a “Bibliography” page.
You can get more information on the Chicago writing style on the Chicago style page.
There are many other citation styles like the American Medical Association (AMA), American Sociological Association (ASA), etc. which are used for disciplines like health, medicine and sociology.
Refer to the respective style guides for each of these styles to know how to refer sources and cite them properly in accordance with their prescribed guidelines and norms.
A source document can be cited in the text of a thesis, assignment, or any content in the following three methods. These include – I) Quotations
Quotations are used to refer to a small section of the source content and must be identical to the original. It must match word by word, and credit should be given to the original author. The relevant page numbers must be allotted while quoting a specific text.
If the text to be quoted is less than 40 words then it should be incorporated in the text itself and enclosed within quotation marks.
For example: Mary (1992) explained that “the placebo effect”, which had been verified in earlier studies ….. (p. 243).
If the text to be quoted is more than 40 words, then the same should be provided within a block of text and the quotation marks removed.
For example: Mary (1992) found the following:
The “placebo effect” which had been verified in earlier studies …….. (p. 276).
II) Paraphrasing and Summarizing
Both these involve providing information in your own words from the source material. Also, do not try to express your own opinion. Instead, express the ideas of others in your own words.
Paraphrased content might be shorter than the original text as you need to refer to a larger section of the text and reduce it in your own words.
Page numbers should be mentioned to help the reader locate the relevant text in the original content unless the entire content is referred to as a whole.
On the other hand, summarizing involves expressing the ideas of others in your own words, but only emphasizing on the main points.
The main purpose of summarizing is to present the overall view of the source material but in a shorter form. Here also, you need to cite the original source.
Including the page numbers or chapter numbers to your summary will help the reader to identify the relevant passage in the original content in case of a longer passage.
III) Citing an entire document
In certain situations, it is necessary to cite the entire source document for referencing by the reader. However, this referencing method is least used as it affects the true essence of the written text.
The manner of citation differs depending on the information that is available.
When there is a single author
Short references within the text are mentioned as a whole or in part within brackets.
Use the surname of the author followed by a comma with the year of publication.
If you want to be specific, include the chapter, page and section numbers. Note that the abbreviation for a single page is p. and that of multiple pages is pp.
For example: (Matthews, 1979, pp. 35-36)
When there are two authors
Cite the name of both the authors every time you cite the source.
Separate the names of the two authors with an “&”. For example: (Green & Lawson, 1998, pp. 35-36).
When you include the names in the text, replace the “&” with “and” and cite both the names. For example: Green and Lawson (1998, pp. 35-36) stated that ...
When there are three or more authors
If you are citing a source for the first time in your content, mention the surnames of all the authors.
For subsequent citations, you just need to mention the surname of the first author followed by an expression “et al.” which indicates “and others.” For example, Lawson et al. (2003, p. 305) have revealed ...
If the number of authors is six or more, only the surname of the first author is mentioned followed by the term “et al.”
When authors have the same surname
If two or more authors have the same surname, try to distinguish them by including the author’s initials.
If the surnames are incorporated in the text then the initials precede the surnames and if it is used as a citation within brackets the initials succeed the surname.
For example: The theory was propounded in 1960 (Kenneth A., 2005) ...
K. Rowling (2002) and S. Rowling (2002) are among those who ...
Citing multiple works by the same author in the same year
The works are distinguished in order of their occurrence by adding lower-case letters to the date.
The lower case letters are also included in the reference list to distinguish between the two
For example: Burton (2006a) mentioned… as did the Llama in South America (Burton, 2005b).
Citing of corporate author(s)
These are different from personal authors. Corporate Authors may be agencies like corporations, government organizations, or departments.
The complete name of the organization must be mentioned when it is cited within the text for the first time.
For subsequent citations, the abbreviated form which is well known may be used.
For example, West Bengal Electronics Industry Development Corporation Limited (1982) in case of first citation and WBEIDC (1982) for subsequent citations.
When there is no author
When a work to be cited has no author or is mentioned as anonymous, then cite the title and the year or the first few words of the reference.
Use italicized format for the title.
For example: The scenario of London was quite different in the 17th century (On traveling to Europe, 1693).
When no date of publication is given
In case there is no publication date mentioned in the source use the abbreviation n.d. to indicate the same.
For example: Manohar (n.d.) has suggested ...
When citing from a newspaper
Sometimes newspaper content does not have the name of the author mentioned. In such a case, cite the title of the newspaper in italics.
Mention the specific date with the year and page number or section number, wherever necessary.
For example: The Economic Times (15-16 Feb. 1998, p.11) reported ...
How to evaluate whether the information in an electronic source is reliable?
Content or database that is published online often provide the name of the author along with other credentials so that the reliability of the author and the source can be evaluated.
However, in reality, it is possible for anyone to host a website, post via social media tools, or create a Facebook page.
So, it is necessary to assess the reliability of a source before using it for citing in your content. This can be done in the following manner –
Find out whether the author is a recognized authority or just a student who has posted his paper online. If the writer is not a qualified expert, do not use it as a citation.
Ensure whether the sponsoring authority is recognized for providing unbiased information source. If you are not sure of the reliability of the source, refrain from using such information in your formal essay research writing.
Check whether the information provided has been recently updated. Sometimes, the timeliness of a source can affect the reliability of the content.
There are some electronic sources that do not have a clear author listed. This includes –
Social media and Government websites.
Institutional, Organizational or University websites.
If you are sure of the reliability of the source, you can always cite such a source in your content to back up your argument and opinions.
Moral Rights of Copyright Material Affecting Citation
Copyright materials have certain moral rights attached to them that affect the citation of such text in the content. This includes the right –
To acknowledge the original creator of the work.
Not to have their work used in a prejudicial or derogatory manner
Not to falsely acknowledge their work in the name of another person.
This means that if you are desirous of citing any copyright material you must clearly attribute such content to the original creator and it must be reasonably prominent.
The moral rights get a similar status as that of copyright. The different types of copyright material that are often used for citation include –
Literary works such as journal articles, conference papers, books, etc.
Dramatic works such as photographs and images.
Dramatic works such as scripts and plays.
Musical works such as notated music and musical scores.
Films and T.V. broadcasts such as video clips and podcasts.
Most citation styles require your in-text citation to be used at the end of the sentence where the quoted material is used. While for parenthetical citations you need to include the citation before closing the punctuation.
The title should be included in title-case for most citation styles. This means all nouns, pronouns, verbs, and adverbs should be capitalized.
The APA style makes use of sentence-case for titles, i.e. only the first word and any proper pronoun should be capitalized.
If the name of the author is not listed, cite the name of the website with the “available at: URL” mentioned in the reference section.
If you are trying to cite a book with two authors having the same last name write the name of the author with the last name. If it is for a different book it should not matter as long as it is mentioned in the bibliography.
Citation is important in making your research paper or essay writing authentic, and avoid plagiarism. Considering plagiarism is a great offence in academia and at work, you need to be careful. Read all about it in this ultimate guide for plagiarism.
